生活

早期和家庭

 

圣母的死亡(在1567年之前,蛋彩画和黄金在面板上, 61.4×45厘米神圣的大教堂圣母的死亡,Hermoupolis,锡罗斯附近)可能是艺术家的克里特岛人时期的结束。这幅画结合全部都和意大利矫饰主义风格和肖像的元素。

生于1541年,Fodele村或干地亚(Chandax的威尼斯人的名字,现在伊拉克里翁)在克里特岛上，格列柯是一个繁荣的城市家庭的后裔,这有可能被赶出有关起义反对后干地亚威尼斯人在1526年和1528年之间。埃尔·格列柯的父亲,乔治·Theotokopoulos(d。1556),是一个商人税吏。不知道他的母亲和他的第一任妻子,希腊。埃尔·格列柯的哥哥Manoussos Theotokopoulos(1531 - 1604年12月13日),是一个富有的商人,在他生命的最后几年(1603 - 1604)在埃尔·格列柯的托莱多回家。

格列柯收到了他作为一个初始培训图标画家的克利特岛的学校,全部艺术的主要中心。除了绘画之外,他可能研究经典的古希腊,也许拉丁经典也,他留下了“图书馆”工作的130本书在他死后,包括在希腊和一个带注释的《圣经》瓦萨里.^[8]干地亚是一个东西方文化艺术活动中心,和谐共存,在大约二百个画家活跃在16世纪期间,组织了一次画家行会根据意大利模型。1563年,22岁的埃尔·格列柯在文档中被描述为一个“主”(“大师Domenigo”),这意味着他已经大师行会和大概操作自己的车间。三年后,1566年6月,合同作为证人,他签署了他的名字μαΐστροςΜένεγοςΘεοτοκόπουλοςσγουράφος(“主Menegos Theotokopoulos、画家”)。

多数学者认为Theotokopoulos“家庭几乎肯定是希腊东正教”,^[10]尽管一些天主教仍然声称他从出生来源。就像许多正统的移民欧洲的天主教地区,一些声称他可能转移到天主教在他到来之后,甚至练习作为天主教在西班牙,在那里,他形容自己是一个虔诚的天主教徒在他的意志。广泛的档案研究自1960年代初以来的学者,如Nikolaos Panayotakis、Pandelis Prevelakis和玛丽亚Constantoudaki,表明格列柯的家人和强烈的祖先是希腊东正教。他的一个叔叔是一个东正教牧师,他的名字并不是天主教洗礼记录档案中提到在克里特岛。Prevelakis走进一步,表达了他的疑问,格列柯曾经虔诚的罗马天主教徒。

重要的他早期的传记,格列柯,在克里特岛,他的画死亡的处女快结束时他的克利特岛的时期,可能在1567年之前。其他三个签名的作品“domenico”是由于埃尔•格列柯(摩德纳三部曲、圣卢克画圣母和耶稣的画像麦琪的崇拜).1563年,22岁的埃尔·格列柯已经登记掌握当地的工会,大概负责自己的车间。几年后他离开了威尼斯,再也没有回到克里特岛。他的死亡的处女在1567年之前的蛋彩画在面板和黄金可能是附近的埃尔·格列柯的克里特岛人创建的。这幅画将全部都和意大利矫揉造作者风格和肖像的元素和风格的元素克利特岛的学校.

意大利

 

乔治的画像朱里奥Clovio从埃尔·格列柯,现存最早的肖像(c。1570年,油画,58×86厘米,博物馆di Capodimonte,那不勒斯)。在Clovio的肖像,在罗马的朋友和支持者的年轻克利特岛的艺术家,第一个证据的埃尔·格列柯的礼物肖像画家是显而易见的。

很自然的年轻的埃尔·格列柯继续他的职业生涯在威尼斯,克里特岛被业自1211年以来,威尼斯共和国。尽管还不清楚确切的年,大多数学者认为埃尔·格列柯去威尼斯1567左右。埃尔·格列柯的年意大利的知识是有限的。他住在威尼斯直到1570年,据信他老得多的朋友写的,最伟大的纤细画家的年龄,朱里奥Clovio是一个“弟子”提香当时在他的年代,但仍充满活力。这可能意味着他在提香的大型工作室,或不。Clovio埃尔·格列柯的特征是“画”里一个难得的人才。

1570年,埃尔•格列柯搬到罗马,他执行的一系列作品强烈的威尼斯学徒。未知多久他留在罗马,尽管他可能已经回到威尼斯(c . 1575—76)在他去西班牙。在罗马,朱利奥Clovio的建议下,^[17]格列柯是收到客人的宫法,这红衣主教亚历桑德罗·法尔犯了一个城市的艺术和精神生活的中心。他在那里接触到的知识精英的城市,包括罗马学者Fulvio奥尔西尼的收集后来包括七个艺术家的画作(的观点西奈山其中和Clovio画像)。

不像其他克利特岛的艺术家搬到了威尼斯,格列柯大大改变了他的风格,试图区分自己发明新的和不同寻常的诠释传统的宗教主题。他的作品画在意大利威尼斯文艺复兴风格的影响,与敏捷,细长的数字让人想起丁托列托他提香和彩色框架连接。威尼斯画家还教他组织multi-figured成分与大气光景观充满活力。Clovio报告访问埃尔·格列柯在夏季的一天当艺术家还在罗马。格列柯坐在漆黑的房间,因为他发现黑暗中更有利于思想比白天的光,打扰他“内心之光”由于他在罗马,他的作品是富含暴力等元素的角度来看消失点或奇怪的态度打动了人物与他们的反复把玩、狂暴的手势之后,所有元素的特殊习惯。

格列柯抵达罗马的时候,米开朗基罗和拉斐尔都死了,但他们的例子仍然是最重要的,和有点压倒性的年轻画家。格列柯下定决心要让自己的马克在罗马捍卫自己的艺术观点,想法和风格。他挑出柯勒乔和帕米贾尼诺特别表扬,但他毫不犹豫地把米开朗基罗的最后审判日西斯廷教堂;他延长了一个提议教皇庇护五世油漆在整个工作符合新的和更严格的天主教思维。当他后来问他想到米开朗基罗,格列柯回答说,“他是一个很好的人,但是他不知道如何画”。因此我们正在面对一个悖论:据说埃尔·格列柯的反应最为强烈,甚至谴责米开朗基罗,但他发现它无法承受他的影响力。米开朗基罗的影响后来的埃尔·格列柯的作品中可以看到如神圣联盟的寓言。米开朗基罗的画肖像,提香,Clovio,据推测,拉斐尔的作品(圣殿净化)、格列柯不仅表达了他的感激之情也先进这些大师声称自己的竞争对手。自己的评论表明,格列柯提香,米开朗基罗和拉斐尔为效仿的榜样。在17世纪的记录,朱里奥曼奇尼包括埃尔·格列柯的画家曾发起,以同的方式,重新评估米开朗基罗的教义。

因为他的非传统的艺术信仰(如他的解雇米开朗基罗的技术)和个性,格列柯很快就获得了在罗马的敌人。建筑学家和作家皮Ligorio称他是“愚蠢的外国人”,新发现的档案材料揭示了法的冲突,迫使年轻的艺术家谁离开他的宫殿。1572年7月6日,埃尔•格列柯正式抱怨这件事。几个月后,1572年9月18日,他支付会费圣卢克的公会在罗马作为一个微型画家。的那一年,格列柯开设了自己的工作室和聘为助理画家Lattanzio Bonastri de Lucignano和旧金山Preboste。

搬到托莱多

 

维珍的假设(1577 - 1579年,布面油画,401×228厘米,芝加哥艺术学院)是一个九画格列柯的完成教堂的圣多明哥el Antiguo在托莱多,他第一次委员会在西班牙。

 

圣Ildefonso细节(1603)

1577年,埃尔•格列柯迁移到马德里托莱多,然后,他产生了成熟的作品。当时,西班牙托莱多是宗教首都和一个人口众多的城市^[h]以“一个繁荣的辉煌的过去,现在和一个不确定的未来”。^[30]在罗马,格列柯已经赢得了一些知识分子的尊重,但也面临一定的敌意艺术评论家.在1570年代的巨大monastery-palaceEl堆渣场仍在建设和西班牙国王菲利普二世正在经历困难在寻找优秀的艺术家所需的许多大型壁画装饰。提香死了,丁托列托,维罗纳人和Anthonis铁道部所有拒绝来到西班牙。菲利普不得不依赖较小的人才胡安费尔南德斯•Navarrete的gravedad y decoro(“严重性和礼仪”)国王批准。然而,费尔南德斯在1579年去世,现在应该是埃尔·格列柯的理想选择。

通过Clovio和奥尔西尼,埃尔•格列柯贝尼托·阿里亚斯Montano西班牙菲利普的人文主义和代理;佩德罗Chacon一个牧师,路易斯·德·卡斯提拉的儿子,迭戈·德·卡斯提拉院长托莱多大教堂.格列柯与卡斯蒂利亚的友谊将获得他的第一个大型在托莱多佣金。他1577年7月到达托莱多,签署合同的一组作品是点缀教堂的圣多明哥el Antiguo在托莱多和著名的 El Espolio.1579年9月,他完成了九圣多明哥的油画,包括三一和假设的处女。这些作品将建立在托莱多画家的声誉。

埃尔·格列柯不打算在托莱多永久定居,因为他的最终目标是赢得菲利普的支持,让他在法院。事实上,他设法获得君主的两个重要的佣金:神圣联盟的寓言牺牲的圣莫里斯。然而,国王不喜欢这些作品并把圣莫里斯祭坛的装饰品分部而不是教堂。他没有给出进一步的埃尔·格列柯佣金。国王的不满的确切原因尚不清楚。有些学者认为,菲利普不喜欢的人生活在一个宗教场景;一些其他的埃尔·格列柯的作品侵犯了的基本规则反对改革,即在图像内容是最重要的而不是风格。菲利普在他的艺术委员会,密切关注,并决定品味,久的雕刻受难Benvenuto Cellini也未能到达时请,同样被流放到一个不太突出的地方。菲利普的下一个实验,费德里科•Zuccari甚至不太成功。在任何情况下,菲利普的不满结束任何希望的皇家埃尔·格列柯可能有赞助。

成熟的作品和晚年

 

的葬礼的Orgaz计数油画(1586 - 1586年,480×360厘米、圣多美,托莱多),现在埃尔·格列柯最著名的作品,展示了一个受欢迎的当地传说。异常大的画,很明显的分为两个区域:天上的上面和下面的地面,聚集在一起构成。

缺乏支持国王埃尔·格列柯被迫留在托莱多,他曾在1577年收到作为一个伟大的画家。根据Hortensio Felix Paravicino17世纪的西班牙传教士和诗人,“克里特岛给了他生活和画家的工艺,托莱多一个更好的家园,在那里通过死亡他开始获得永生。”1585年,他似乎已经雇佣了一个助理,意大利画家旧金山Preboste,建立了车间生产的能力坛帧和雕像以及绘画。1586年3月12日,他获得了委员会的葬礼的Orgaz计数,现在他最著名的作品。

1597年至1607年这十年,是一段激烈的埃尔·格列柯的活动。这些年他收到了几个主要的委员会,和他的工作室创造了绘画和雕塑为各种宗教机构的集合体。在他这一时期的主要委员会三教堂的祭坛圣何塞在托莱多(1597 - 1599),三幅画(1596 - 1600)Colegio de夫人玛丽亚·德·阿拉贡奥古斯丁的修道院在马德里,和高坛,四侧的祭坛,这幅画圣Ildefonso de la Capilla市长的医院Caridad慈善机构(医院)Illescas(1603 - 1605)。分钟的委员会的处女圣灵感孕说(1607 - 1613),由市政当局的人员,格列柯描述为“最伟大的人之一在这个王国内外”。

从1607年到1608年,格列柯卷入了一场旷日持久的法律纠纷与当局的慈善医院Illescas有关支付他的作品,包括绘画、雕塑和建筑;这和其他法律纠纷导致了经济困难年底他经历了他的生命。1608年,他收到了他的最后一个主要委员会:医院圣施洗约翰在托莱多。

格列柯托莱多安了家。幸存的合同提及他的租户从1585年起三个组成的一个复杂的公寓和24个房间的Villena侯爵.在这些公寓,也担任他的工作室,他通过他的余生,绘画和学习。他住在相当大的风格,有时采用音乐家演奏而他共进晚餐。,还不能确定是否他与西班牙女性生活伴侣,Jeronima de Las Cuevas他可能从未结婚。她是他唯一的儿子的母亲,豪尔赫•曼努埃尔•,1578年出生,他也成为一个画家,帮助他的父亲,并继续重复他的作品多年后他继承了工作室。^[j].1604年,豪尔赫•曼努埃尔•莫拉雷斯和Alfonsa de los生埃尔·格列柯的孙子,加布里埃尔,被格雷戈里奥。安古洛受洗,托莱多州长和艺术家个人的朋友。

过程中执行委员会医院Tavera,格列柯,重病,一个月后,1614年4月7日,他去世了。几天前,3月31日,他指示他的儿子应该有能力让他的意志。两个希腊人,朋友的画家,见证了这一点遗嘱(格列柯从未失去联系他的希腊起源)。他被葬在教堂圣多明哥el Antiguo,享年73岁。

Life

Early years and family

Born in 1541, in either the village of Fodele or Candia (the Venetian name of Chandax, present day Heraklion) on Crete,El Greco was descended from a prosperous urban family, which had probably been driven out of Chania to Candia after an uprising against the Venetians between 1526 and 1528.^[5] El Greco's father, Geórgios Theotokópoulos (d. 1556), was a merchant and tax collector. Nothing is known about his mother or his first wife, also Greek.^[6] El Greco's older brother, Manoússos Theotokópoulos (1531 – 13 December 1604), was a wealthy merchant and spent the last years of his life (1603–1604) in El Greco's Toledo home.

El Greco received his initial training as an icon painter of the Cretan school, a leading center of post-Byzantine art. In addition to painting, he probably studied theclassics of ancient Greece, and perhaps the Latin classics also; he left a "working library" of 130 books at his death, including the Bible in Greek and an annotatedVasari.Candia was a center for artistic activity where Eastern and Western cultures co-existed harmoniously, where around two hundred painters were active during the 16th century, and had organized a painters' guild, based on the Italian model.^[5] In 1563, at the age of twenty-two, El Greco was described in a document as a "master" ("maestro Domenigo"), meaning he was already a master of the guild and presumably operating his own workshop.Three years later, in June 1566, as a witness to a contract, he signed his name as μαΐστρος Μένεγος Θεοτοκόπουλος σγουράφος ("Master Ménegos Theotokópoulos, painter").

Most scholars believe that the Theotokópoulos "family was almost certainly Greek Orthodox",^[10] although some Catholic sources still claim him from birth.^[e] Like many Orthodox emigrants to Catholic areas of Europe, some assert that he may have transferred to Catholicism after his arrival, and possibly practiced as a Catholic in Spain, where he described himself as a "devout Catholic" in his will. The extensive archival research conducted since the early 1960s by scholars, such as Nikolaos Panayotakis, Pandelis Prevelakis and Maria Constantoudaki, indicates strongly that El Greco's family and ancestors were Greek Orthodox. One of his uncles was an Orthodox priest, and his name is not mentioned in the Catholic archival baptismal records on Crete.^[11] Prevelakis goes even further, expressing his doubt that El Greco was ever a practicing Roman Catholic.

Important for his early biography, El Greco, still in Crete, painted his Dormition of the Virgin near the end of his Cretan period, probably before 1567. Three other signed works of "Doménicos" are attributed to El Greco (Modena Triptych, St. Luke Painting the Virgin and Child, and The Adoration of the Magi).^[13] In 1563, at the age of twenty-two, El Greco was already an enrolled master of the local guild, presumably in charge of his own workshop.^[14] He left for Venice a few years later, and never returned to Crete. His Dormition of the Virgin, of before 1567 in tempera and gold on panel was probably created near the end of El Greco's Cretan period. The painting combines post-Byzantine and Italian Mannerist stylistic and iconographic elements, and incorporates stylistic elements of the Cretan School.

Italy

It was natural for the young El Greco to pursue his career in Venice, Crete having been a possession of the Republic of Venice since 1211.^[3] Though the exact year is not clear, most scholars agree that El Greco went to Venice around 1567.^[f] Knowledge of El Greco's years in Italy is limited. He lived in Venice until 1570 and, according to a letter written by his much older friend, the greatest miniaturist of the age, Giulio Clovio, was a "disciple" of Titian, who was by then in his eighties but still vigorous. This may mean he worked in Titian's large studio, or not. Clovio characterized El Greco as "a rare talent in painting".^[15]

In 1570, El Greco moved to Rome, where he executed a series of works strongly marked by his Venetian apprenticeship.^[15] It is unknown how long he remained in Rome, though he may have returned to Venice (c. 1575–76) before he left for Spain.^[16] In Rome, on the recommendation of Giulio Clovio,^[17] El Greco was received as a guest at the Palazzo Farnese, which Cardinal Alessandro Farnese had made a center of the artistic and intellectual life of the city. There he came into contact with the intellectual elite of the city, including the Roman scholar Fulvio Orsini, whose collection would later include seven paintings by the artist (View of Mt. Sinai and a portrait of Clovio are among them).

Unlike other Cretan artists who had moved to Venice, El Greco substantially altered his style and sought to distinguish himself by inventing new and unusual interpretations of traditional religious subject matter.^[19] His works painted in Italy were influenced by the Venetian Renaissance style of the period, with agile, elongated figures reminiscent of Tintoretto and a chromatic framework that connects him to Titian.^[3] The Venetian painters also taught him to organize his multi-figured compositions in landscapes vibrant with atmospheric light. Clovio reports visiting El Greco on a summer's day while the artist was still in Rome. El Greco was sitting in a darkened room, because he found the darkness more conducive to thought than the light of the day, which disturbed his "inner light".^[20] As a result of his stay in Rome, his works were enriched with elements such as violent perspectivevanishing points or strange attitudes struck by the figures with their repeated twisting and turning and tempestuous gestures; all elements of Mannerism.

By the time El Greco arrived in Rome, Michelangelo and Raphael were dead, but their example continued to be paramount, and somewhat overwhelming for young painters. El Greco was determined to make his own mark in Rome defending his personal artistic views, ideas and style.^[21] He singled out Correggio and Parmigianino for particular praise, but he did not hesitate to dismiss Michelangelo's Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel;^[g] he extended an offer to Pope Pius V to paint over the whole work in accord with the new and stricter Catholic thinking. When he was later asked what he thought about Michelangelo, El Greco replied that "he was a good man, but he did not know how to paint". And thus we are confronted by a paradox: El Greco is said to have reacted most strongly or even condemned Michelangelo, but he had found it impossible to withstand his influence.Michelangelo's influence can be seen in later El Greco works such as the Allegory of the Holy League. By painting portraits of Michelangelo, Titian, Clovio and, presumably, Raphael in one of his works (The Purification of the Temple), El Greco not only expressed his gratitude but also advanced the claim to rival these masters. As his own commentaries indicate, El Greco viewed Titian, Michelangelo and Raphael as models to emulate.In his 17th century Chronicles, Giulio Mancini included El Greco among the painters who had initiated, in various ways, a re-evaluation of Michelangelo's teachings.

Because of his unconventional artistic beliefs (such as his dismissal of Michelangelo's technique) and personality, El Greco soon acquired enemies in Rome. Architect and writer Pirro Ligorio called him a "foolish foreigner", and newly discovered archival material reveals a skirmish with Farnese, who obliged the young artist to leave his palace.^[27] On 6 July 1572, El Greco officially complained about this event. A few months later, on 18 September 1572, he paid his dues to the Guild of Saint Luke in Rome as a miniature painter.^[28] At the end of that year, El Greco opened his own workshop and hired as assistants the painters Lattanzio Bonastri de Lucignano and Francisco Preboste.

Spain

Move to Toledo

In 1577, El Greco migrated to Madrid, then to Toledo, where he produced his mature works. At the time, Toledo was the religious capital of Spain and a populous city with "an illustrious past, a prosperous present and an uncertain future".^[30]In Rome, El Greco had earned the respect of some intellectuals, but was also facing the hostility of certain art critics.^[31] During the 1570s the huge monastery-palace of El Escorial was still under construction and Philip II of Spain was experiencing difficulties in finding good artists for the many large paintings required to decorate it. Titian was dead, and Tintoretto, Veronese and Anthonis Mor all refused to come to Spain. Philip had to rely on the lesser talent of Juan Fernández de Navarrete, of whose gravedad y decoro ("seriousness and decorum") the king approved. However, Fernández died in 1579; the moment should have been ideal for El Greco.

Through Clovio and Orsini, El Greco met Benito Arias Montano, a Spanish humanist and agent of Philip; Pedro Chacón, a clergyman; and Luis de Castilla, son of Diego de Castilla, the dean of the Cathedral of Toledo. El Greco's friendship with Castilla would secure his first large commissions in Toledo. He arrived in Toledo by July 1577, and signed contracts for a group of paintings that was to adorn thechurch of Santo Domingo el Antiguo in Toledo and for the renowned El Espolio. By September 1579 he had completed nine paintings for Santo Domingo, including The Trinity and The Assumption of the Virgin. These works would establish the painter's reputation in Toledo.

El Greco did not plan to settle permanently in Toledo, since his final aim was to win the favor of Philip and make his mark in his court. Indeed, he did manage to secure two important commissions from the monarch: Allegory of the Holy League andMartyrdom of St. Maurice. However, the king did not like these works and placed the St Maurice altarpiece in the chapter-house rather than the intended chapel. He gave no further commissions to El Greco.The exact reasons for the king's dissatisfaction remain unclear. Some scholars have suggested that Philip did not like the inclusion of living persons in a religious scene; some others that El Greco's works violated a basic rule of the Counter-Reformation, namely that in the image the content was paramount rather than the style. Philip took a close interest in his artistic commissions, and had very decided tastes; a long sought-after sculpted Crucifixion by Benvenuto Cellini also failed to please when it arrived, and was likewise exiled to a less prominent place. Philip's next experiment, with Federico Zuccari was even less successful.^[38] In any case, Philip's dissatisfaction ended any hopes of royal patronage El Greco may have had.

Mature works and later years

Lacking the favor of the king, El Greco was obliged to remain in Toledo, where he had been received in 1577 as a great painter. According to Hortensio Félix Paravicino, a 17th-century Spanish preacher and poet, "Crete gave him life and the painter's craft, Toledo a better homeland, where through Death he began to achieve eternal life."In 1585, he appears to have hired an assistant, Italian painter Francisco Preboste, and to have established a workshop capable of producing altar frames and statues as well as paintings. On 12 March 1586 he obtained the commission for The Burial of the Count of Orgaz, now his best-known work.

The decade 1597 to 1607 was a period of intense activity for El Greco. During these years he received several major commissions, and his workshop created pictorial and sculptural ensembles for a variety of religious institutions. Among his major commissions of this period were three altars for the Chapel of San José in Toledo (1597–1599); three paintings (1596–1600) for the Colegio de Doña María de Aragon, an Augustinian monastery in Madrid, and the high altar, four lateral altars, and the painting St. Ildefonso for the Capilla Mayor of the Hospital de la Caridad (Hospital of Charity) at Illescas (1603–1605).^[3] The minutes of the commission of The Virgin of the Immaculate Conception (1607–1613), which were composed by the personnel of the municipality, describe El Greco as "one of the greatest men in both this kingdom and outside it".

Between 1607 and 1608 El Greco was involved in a protracted legal dispute with the authorities of the Hospital of Charity at Illescas concerning payment for his work, which included painting, sculpture and architecture;^[i] this and other legal disputes contributed to the economic difficulties he experienced towards the end of his life. In 1608, he received his last major commission: for the Hospital of Saint John the Baptist in Toledo.

El Greco made Toledo his home. Surviving contracts mention him as the tenant from 1585 onwards of a complex consisting of three apartments and twenty-four rooms which belonged to the Marquis de Villena. It was in these apartments, which also served as his workshop, that he passed the rest of his life, painting and studying. He lived in considerable style, sometimes employing musicians to play whilst he dined. It is not confirmed whether he lived with his Spanish female companion, Jerónima de Las Cuevas, whom he probably never married. She was the mother of his only son, Jorge Manuel, born in 1578, who also became a painter, assisted his father, and continued to repeat his compositions for many years after he inherited the studio.^[j] In 1604, Jorge Manuel and Alfonsa de los Morales gave birth to El Greco's grandson, Gabriel, who was baptized by Gregorio Angulo, governor of Toledo and a personal friend of the artist.

During the course of the execution of a commission for the Hospital Tavera, El Greco fell seriously ill, and a month later, on 7 April 1614, he died. A few days earlier, on 31 March, he had directed that his son should have the power to make his will. Two Greeks, friends of the painter, witnessed this last will and testament (El Greco never lost touch with his Greek origins). He was buried in the Church of Santo Domingo el Antiguo, aged 73.